Everything below concerns 免疫调节. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-10-06. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Thymosin alpha-1 is supplied as a lyophilized powder in most research settings. The solid dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, and it is typically reconstituted shortly before use. Solutions are clear and colourless at ordinary working concentrations. Because the peptide is hygroscopic, weighing and reconstitution are usually performed with minimal exposure to ambient air. Aliquots are prepared to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and working solutions are kept cold.
Long-term storage is generally at minus twenty degrees Celsius or colder, preferably desiccated and protected from light. Lyophilized material is more stable than reconstituted solution, which degrades faster at room temperature. Stability depends on pH, ionic strength, and the presence of oxidising agents. Published stability data for the peptide are limited, so storage claims in catalogues should be treated as general guidance rather than measured guarantees. Freeze-thaw cycles are kept to a minimum.
Identity and purity are normally confirmed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The expected mass for the acetylated 28-residue peptide is close to 3108 daltons, and a mass shift indicates a modification or truncation. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion can resolve sequence-level questions. Counter-ion content, water content, and residual solvents are separate quality attributes that a certificate of analysis may or may not report. Aggregation is monitored by size-exclusion chromatography when relevant.
Lyophilized thymosin alpha 1 is typically stored refrigerated at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius and kept away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually used promptly after preparation. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are avoided because they can promote aggregation and loss of activity. The peptide adsorbs to some plastic and glass surfaces, so a carrier protein is often added to dilute working solutions. Manufacturer instructions and published protocols both govern handling.
Identity and purity testing for thymosin alpha 1 relies mainly on reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Chromatography separates the parent peptide from truncated or modified variants, while mass spectrometry confirms the expected molecular mass. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional sequence confirmation. Counterion content, water content, and residual solvents are measured separately as part of specification testing. No single method captures every attribute, so laboratories combine several techniques.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized form |
| Solubility | Soluble in water | Also soluble in aqueous buffers |
| Storage temperature | -20 °C or below | Desiccated, protected from light |
| Typical analytical method | RP-HPLC with mass spectrometry | Purity and identity |
| Common synonyms | Thymalfasin, T alpha 1 | Sequence identical to natural fragment |
The compound has been investigated as an adjunct in chronic viral hepatitis and as a vaccine adjuvant, with results that vary by study design and population. Regulators in some countries have approved a synthetic form for specific indications, while other agencies have not. Whether the peptide produces consistent clinical benefit across diverse patient groups is still an open question, and many trials have been small. Its status is therefore best described as investigational in many contexts and established only narrowly.
The name itself causes confusion, because several unrelated thymic peptides share the thymosin label. Thymosin beta-4, for example, is a different molecule with different functions. Naming conventions in the literature also mix descriptive research terms with assigned nonproprietary names, so a reader should confirm which entity a given paper addresses. Clarifying that point is usually the first step in interpreting any claim about this peptide.
临床研究将Tα1用于慢性病毒感染、肿瘤辅助治疗和疫苗佐剂等场景。部分试验报告了免疫学指标改善，但临床终点获益在不同研究中并不一致。系统综述指出，研究间在人群、剂量和联合方案上差异较大，难以汇总结论。因此，Tα1的确切临床地位仍属开放问题，需要更多高质量随机对照试验来澄清。其机制研究也需从体外实验向体内模型推进。
胸腺素α1对免疫系统的影响涉及多种细胞类型。研究表明，它可促进未成熟T细胞向成熟T细胞分化，并增强T细胞对抗原刺激的增殖反应。树突状细胞在Tα1存在下表达更高水平的共刺激分子，从而更有效地呈递抗原。此外，自然杀伤细胞的活性也观察到上升。这些效应并非直接杀伤病原体，而是调节宿主免疫应答的强度与方向。
在信号层面，Tα1可能通过Toll样受体等模式识别受体发挥作用。部分实验显示，它能激活髓样分化因子88依赖的通路，进而促进核因子κB进入细胞核。这导致白细胞介素2、干扰素γ和白细胞介素12等细胞因子的转录增加。这些细胞因子偏向辅助性T细胞1型应答，有助于细胞免疫。然而，具体受体和结合位点尚未完全确定，不同实验模型的结果存在差异。
Several factors accelerate degradation: alkaline pH, elevated temperature, exposure to oxidants, and the presence of residual moisture. Deamidation of asparagine residues and oxidation of methionine are the most commonly reported degradation routes. Because the peptide lacks disulfide bonds, it does not undergo the thiol-related aggregation seen in some other biologics, but physical aggregation can still occur at high concentration. Stability data are product-specific, and extrapolating shelf life between formulations is not reliable.
Lyophilized thymosin alpha-1 is generally stored at or below minus twenty degrees Celsius, protected from moisture and light. Short-term handling at ambient temperature is possible for dry powder, but reconstituted solutions degrade faster and are usually kept at two to eight degrees Celsius with a defined expiry of days rather than weeks. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided because they promote aggregation and loss of potency. Exact limits depend on the formulation and should follow the supplier's documentation.
=== tim-tin === Tim-AK Timecelles timefurone (INN) timegadine (INN) timelotem (INN) Timentin timepidium bromide (INN) timiperone (INN) timirdine (INN) timobesone (INN) timofibrate (INN) Timolide timolol (INN) timonacic (INN) timoprazole (INN) Timoptic tinabinol (INN) Tinactin Antifungal Tinaderm Tinamed tinazoline (INN) TinBen Tindal Tindamax Ting tinidazole (INN) tinisulpride (INN) tinofedrine (INN) tinoridine (INN) Tinver tinzaparin sodium (INN)
== Epidemiology == Soft-tissue sarcomas are very uncommon cancers. They account for less than 1% of all new cancer cases each year. In 2023, about 14,300 new cases were diagnosed in the United States. Soft-tissue sarcomas are more commonly found in older patients (>50 years old), although in children and adolescents under age 20, certain histologies are common (rhabdomyosarcoma, synovial sarcoma). Around 3,300 people were diagnosed with soft-tissue sarcoma in the UK in 2011.
=== Continuous flow === Continuous flow microfluidics rely on the control of a steady state liquid flow through narrow channels or porous media predominantly by accelerating or hindering fluid flow in capillary elements. In paper based microfluidics, capillary elements can be achieved through the simple variation of section geometry. In general, the actuation of liquid flow is implemented either by external pressure sources, external mechanical pumps, integrated mechanical micropumps, or by combinations of capillary forces and electrokinetic mechanisms. Continuous-flow microfluidic operation is the mainstream approach because it is easy to implement and less sensitive to protein fouling problems. Continuous-flow devices are adequate for many well-defined and simple biochemical applications, and for certain tasks such as chemical separation, but they are less suitable for tasks requiring a high degree of flexibility or fluid manipulations. These closed-channel systems are inherently difficult to integrate and scale because the parameters that govern flow field vary along the flow path making the fluid flow at any one location dependent on the properties of the entire system. Permanently etched microstructures also lead to limited reconfigurability and poor fault tolerance capability.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The first investigation conducted in China was by the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission, responding to hospitals reporting cases of pneumonia of unknown etiology, resulting in the closure of the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market on 1 January 2020 for sanitation and disinfection. The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CCDC) entered the market the same day and took samples; as the animals had been removed before public-health authorities came in, no animals were sampled, although that would have been more conclusive. In April 2020, China imposed restrictions on publishing academic research on the novel coronavirus. Investigations into the origin of the virus would receive extra scrutiny and must be approved by Central Government officials. The restrictions do not ban research or publication, including with non-Chinese researchers; Ian Lipkin, a US scientist, has been working with a team of Chinese researchers under the auspices of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, a Chinese government agency, to investigate the origin of the virus. Lipkin has long-standing relationships with Chinese officials, including premier Li Keqiang, because of his contributions to rapid testing for SARS in 2003. The Huanan live-animal market was suspected of being the source of the virus, as there was a major, early cluster of cases there. On 31 January 2021, a team of scientists led by the World Health Organization visited the market to investigate the origins of COVID-19.
=== Production and fermentation === First, raw milk (either from cattle, goats or sheep) is mixed and pasteurized at 72 °C (162 °F) for 15 seconds. Then, acidification occurs: a starter culture, such as Streptococcus lactis, is added in order to change lactose to lactic acid, thus changing the acidity of the milk and turning it from liquid to solid. The next step is coagulation, where rennet, a mixture of rennin and other materials found in the stomach lining of a calf is added to solidify the milk further. Following this, thick curds are cut typically with a knife to encourage the release of liquid or whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the thicker and harder the resulting cheese will become. After the curds have been ladled into containers in order to be drained and formed into a full wheel of cheese, the Penicillium roqueforti inoculum is sprinkled on top of the curds along with Brevibacterium linens. Then, the curd granules are knit in molds to form cheese loaves with a relatively open texture. Next, whey drainage continues for 10–48 hours in which no pressure is applied, but the molds are inverted frequently to promote this process. Salt is then added to provide flavor as well as to act as a preservative so the cheese does not spoil through the process of brine salting or dry salting for 24–48 hours. The final step is ripening the cheese by aging it. When the cheese is freshly made, there is little to no blue cheese flavor development. Usually, a fermentation period of 60–90 days is needed before the flavor of the cheese is typical and acceptable for marketing.
Battle of Hébuterne — French attacks on the southern flanks became disorganized, with one German patrol able to take 100 French prisoners. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sent Germany the second of three letters related to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in May, rejecting Germany's argument the British blockade was illegal and that the Lusitania was carrying munitions. United States Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resigned over disagreement regarding his nation's handling of the RMS Lusitania sinking. Second Battle of Garua — After nearly 10 days of siege from British and French forces, close to half of the native colonial troops under German command in forts around Garua, German Cameroon began to mutiny or desert their posts. British colonial force cracked down on rioters in Ceylon, resulting in 116 dead. British cruiser HMS Dublin was torpedoed and damaged in the Adriatic Sea off Albania by Austro-Hungarian submarine SM U-4 with the loss of 12 of her 440 crew. HMS Dublin was subsequently repaired and returned to service. The Georgia Prison Commission denied an application to commute the death sentence of Leo Frank in a 2–1 vote, who was convinced in 1913 for the murder of 13-year old Mary Phagan. British naval forces occupied the island of Kamaran in the Red Sea off the coast what is now Yemen. The French Army established the Marine Infantry Tank Regiment. Born: Les Paul, American musician, inventor of the solid body electric guitar; as Lester William Polsfuss, in Waukesha, Wisconsin, United States (d. 2009)
==== Cyanopyrrolidines ==== Cyanopyrrolidines have two key interactions to the DPP-4 complex: 1. Nitrile in the position of the scissile bond of the peptidic substrate that is important for high potency. The nitrile group forms reversible covalent bonds with the catalytically active serine hydroxyl (Ser630), i.e. cyanopyrrolidines are competitive inhibitors with slow dissociation kinetics. 2. Hydrogen bonding network between the protonated amino group and a negatively charged region of the protein surface, Glu205, Glu206 and Tyr662. All cyanopyrrolidines have basic, primary or secondary amine, which makes this network possible but these compounds usually drop in potency if these amines are changed. Nonetheless, two patent applications unveil that the amino group can be changed, i.e. replaced by a hydrazine, but it is claimed that these compounds do not only act via DPP-4 inhibition but also prevent diabetic vascular complications by acting as a radical scavenger.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Otis Laurey === Otis (voiced by Michael Shapiro) appears in Blue Shift and Opposing Force. In the latter, Otis helps Shepard fight through areas of the Black Mesa Research Facility, opening a door and is not seen again. In Blue Shift, Otis appears at the shooting range at the start of the game. He is trying to eat a donut and pull out his weapon.
== The endocrine system == Endocrinology is the study of the endocrine system in the human body. This is a system of glands which secrete hormones. Hormones are chemicals that affect the actions of different organ systems in the body. Examples include thyroid hormone, growth hormone, and insulin. The endocrine system involves a number of feedback mechanisms, so that often one hormone (such as thyroid stimulating hormone) will control the action or release of another secondary hormone (such as thyroid hormone). If there is too much of the secondary hormone, it may provide negative feedback to the primary hormone, maintaining homeostasis. In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell). A neuroendocrine signal is a "classical" hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on neuroendocrinology).
== In insects == In Drosophila melanogaster, the alpha-subunit of Na+/K+-ATPase has two paralogs, ATPα (ATPα1) and JYalpha (ATPα2), resulting from an ancient duplication in insects. In Drosophila, ATPα1 is ubiquitously and highly expressed, whereas ATPα2 is most highly expressed in male testes and is essential for male fertility. Insects have at least one copy of both genes, and occasionally duplications. Low expression of ATPα2 has also been noted in other insects. Duplications and neofunctionalization of ATPα1 have been observed in insects that are adapted to cardiotonic steroid toxins such as cardenolides and bufadienolides. Insects adapted to cardiotonic steroids typically have a number of amino acid substitutions, most often in the first extra-cellular loop of ATPα1, that confer resistance to cardiotonic steroid inhibition.
== Recognition == In 1999, the University of Oulu collagen research group received, for the second time, the Finnish Science Award, divided amongst the group's members. In addition to Ala-Kokko, the group included professors Kari Kivirikko and Taina Pihlajaniemi. In 2001 she received the Norwegian Anders Jahre Prize for Young Scientists.
In 2023, it was the 246th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1 million prescriptions. It is available as a generic medication. In 2023, the combination of dexamethasone with neomycin and polymyxin B was the 260th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1 million prescriptions; and the combination of dexamethasone with ciprofloxacin was the 283rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 700,000 prescriptions;
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Lyophilized powder is normally kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius or below, in a sealed container, desiccated and away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually refrigerated and used quickly. Repeated temperature cycling should be avoided.
Mass spectrometry gives the molecular mass, which is compared with the calculated value. Reversed-phase liquid chromatography shows purity and the presence of related impurities. Peptide mapping can verify the amino acid sequence when a higher level of detail is needed.
It reports the tests the supplier performed, which may vary between laboratories and lots. Methods and acceptance criteria are not standardised across suppliers. Buyers often request the actual chromatograms and spectra rather than a summary statement.
The lyophilized powder is kept refrigerated at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius and protected from light. Reconstituted solutions should be used promptly. Freezing and thawing repeatedly is avoided.