The short version of thymosin alpha-1 fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2025-09-03. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a synthetic peptide of 28 amino acid residues that corresponds to a naturally occurring fragment first isolated from thymus tissue. Its chain is acetylated at the amino terminus, a modification that shields the peptide from rapid cleavage by aminopeptidases. The molecule carries a net negative charge at physiological pH and dissolves freely in water. Researchers classify it as an immune-modulating agent rather than a classical hormone, because it acts on several cell types of both the innate and the adaptive immune system.
The peptide was identified during work in the 1970s on thymosin fraction 5, a partially purified extract of calf thymus. Investigators separated that mixture and characterized individual components, one of which they named thymosin alpha-1. The same compound later received the international nonproprietary name thymalfasin. Commercial material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than by extraction, so synthetic and natural forms share an identical sequence. Naming conventions vary across the literature, and readers should distinguish the alpha-1 peptide from other thymosins that have unrelated sequences and functions.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide of 28 amino acid residues that derives from the amino terminal region of a larger precursor protein known as prothymosin alpha. The peptide carries an acetyl group on its first residue and contains no disulfide bonds or carbohydrate chains. Its sequence is highly conserved across mammalian species, which is one reason laboratories treat it as a molecule with a defined and reproducible structure rather than a variable tissue extract. The name follows an early naming convention for thymus-derived fractions and does not imply that the peptide acts as a hormone in the classical endocrine sense.
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular mass | About 3.1 kDa | 28 residues, N-terminally acetylated |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also soluble in aqueous buffers |
| Storage temperature | 2 to 8 °C | Protect from light and moisture |
| Common synonyms | Thymalfasin; Tα1 | Same peptide sequence |
Thymosin alpha 1 is a short peptide first isolated from bovine thymus tissue in the early 1970s during fractionation work aimed at identifying factors that influence T cell development. It belongs to a family of acidic thymic peptides, and the original preparations contained several components that were later separated by chromatography. The compound is now produced synthetically rather than extracted from tissue, which removes batch variability tied to animal sourcing. Researchers describe it as an immunomodulatory peptide because laboratory studies show effects on several cell types of the innate and adaptive immune systems.
The molecule consists of 28 amino acid residues with an acetyl group attached to the N-terminal serine. Its sequence is acidic overall, with several glutamic and aspartic acid residues distributed along the chain and no cysteine, so disulfide bridges do not form. The peptide carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. Because the N-terminus is blocked, the intact molecule resists degradation by many aminopeptidases, which contributes to its stability in biological fluids.
Whether the free 28-residue peptide circulates in human tissue remains debated. The best-documented human source is prothymosin alpha, a larger acidic protein that carries the sequence at its N-terminus. Reports of measurable peptide levels in serum and lymphoid tissue exist, yet some of that signal may come from cross-reacting fragments or from the parent protein. Most reviews therefore treat prothymosin alpha as the established human molecule and describe independent circulation of the small peptide as an unresolved question.
Immunological studies connect the peptide to multiple parts of the immune response. It has been reported to engage Toll-like receptor signaling, to promote dendritic cell maturation, and to influence the balance of T helper cell subsets. Changes in natural killer cell activity and in cytokine release appear in cell culture and animal models. These observations describe broad immunomodulatory behavior rather than a single defined receptor target, and the primary molecular interaction has not been settled.
This indicates that all the protons have been removed. When this is so, the solution is not buffered and the pH rises steeply on addition of a small amount of strong base. However, the pH does not continue to rise indefinitely. A new buffer region begins at about pH 11 (pKw − 3), which is where self-ionization of water becomes important. It is very difficult to measure pH values of less than two in aqueous solution with a glass electrode, because the Nernst equation breaks down at such low pH values. To determine pK values of less than about 2 or more than about 11 spectrophotometric or NMR measurements may be used instead of, or combined with, pH measurements. When the glass electrode cannot be employed, as with non-aqueous solutions, spectrophotometric methods are frequently used. These may involve absorbance or fluorescence measurements. In both cases the measured quantity is assumed to be proportional to the sum of contributions from each photo-active species; with absorbance measurements the Beer–Lambert law is assumed to apply. Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) may be used to determine both a pK value and the corresponding standard enthalpy for acid dissociation. Software to perform the calculations is supplied by the instrument manufacturers for simple systems. Aqueous solutions with normal water cannot be used for 1H NMR measurements but heavy water, D2O, must be used instead. 13C NMR data, however, can be used with normal water and 1H NMR spectra can be used with non-aqueous media.
== Music and lyrics == With songs written primarily on the road, the material is darker than Facelift. "We did a lot of soul searching on this album. There's a lot of intense feelings." Cantrell said, "We deal with our daily demons through music. All of the poison that builds up during the day we cleanse when we play". Drug use was front and center as a lyrical theme on the album. Three tracks ("Junkhead", "God Smack", and "Hate to Feel") specifically reference heroin use and its effects. Staley revealed that the album is semi-conceptual and that there are two basic themes in it. The first theme is about "dealing with kind of a personal anguish and turmoil, which turns into drugs to ease that pain, and being confident that that was the answer in a way. Then later on the songs start to slip down closer and closer to hell, and then he figures out that drugs were not, and are not, the way to ease that pain. Basically, it's the whole story of the last three years of my life." Staley described the other theme as being about "painful relationships and involvements with persons." Staley later expressed regret about the lyrical content of some songs on Dirt, explaining, "I wrote about drugs, and I didn't think I was being unsafe or careless by writing about them ... I didn't want my fans to think that heroin was cool. But then I've had fans come up to me and give me the thumbs up, telling me they're high. That's exactly what I didn't want to happen." Cantrell said in 2013: "That darkness was always part of the band, but it wasn't all about that.
Change in the receptor conformation such that binding of the agonist does not activate the receptor. This is seen with ion channel receptors. Uncoupling of the receptor effector molecules is seen with G protein-coupled receptors. Receptor sequestration (internalization), e.g. in the case of hormone receptors.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The following binary (containing only two elements) technetium halides are known: TcF6, TcF5, TcCl4, TcBr4, TcBr3, α-TcCl3, β-TcCl3, TcI3, α-TcCl2, and β-TcCl2. The oxidation states range from Tc(VI) to Tc(II). Technetium halides exhibit different structure types, such as molecular octahedral complexes, extended chains, layered sheets, and metal clusters arranged in a three-dimensional network. These compounds are produced by combining the metal and halogen or by less direct reactions. TcCl4 is obtained by chlorination of Tc metal or Tc2O7. Upon heating, TcCl4 gives the corresponding Tc(III) and Tc(II) chlorides.
== Medical uses == Insulin degludec is indicated to improve glycemic control in people with diabetes. In a meta-analysis involving data from 3 randomized controlled trials having 1171 patients, thrice weekly insulin degludec had similar efficacy as daily insulin glargine injections with regards to the fasting blood glucose reduction, having similar safety and risk of low blood glucose (hypoglycaemia) profile. However the overall HbA1c reduction with thrice weekly insulin degludec injection was marginally lower than that of daily insulin glargine injections. Hence thrice weekly degludec injections can be considered in extremely needle prick phobic patients as a choice for basal insulin therapy.
=== 2009 === In February 2009, the International Institute for Strategic Studies published an annual report, Military Balance 2009. The report said that Russian forces were well-prepared for the August war and the Russian military operation was strategically well-planned. In 2009, Martin Malek, a researcher at the Institute for Peace Support and Conflict Management of the National Defense Academy in Vienna, noted that in September 2008, the Valdai Discussion Club was told by Vladimir Putin about his August 8 meeting with Chinese officials in Beijing and discussion of the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia; Malek concluded that 8 August 2008 was the latest date when the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia was considered or "possibly already decided". Malek concluded that due to the anti-American bias of the western Europeans and mass dislike of George W. Bush, the western media was keen to put the blame for the war on the pro-American Georgian government. In May 2009, Kaarel Kaas wrote an article for International Centre for Defense Studies, where he noted that this war was the first time since the fall of the Soviet Union that the Russian military had been used against an independent state, demonstrating Russia's willingness to use military force to attain its political objectives. Kaas wrote, "The military operation was only one phase in a longer-term anti-Georgian campaign.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Osedax antarcticus Glover, Wiklund & Dahlgren, 2013 Osedax bozoi Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024 Osedax braziliensis Fujiwara, Jimi, Sumida, Kawato, Kitazato Osedax bryani Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax byronbayensis Georgieva, Wiklund, Ramos, Neal, Glasby & Gunton, 2023 Osedax craigmcclaini Berman, Hiley, Read, Rouse, 2024 Osedax crouchi Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014 Osedax deceptionensis Taboada, Cristobo, Avila, Wiklund & Glover, 2013 Osedax docricketts Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax estcourti Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024 Osedax fenrisi Eilertsen, Dahlgren & Rapp, 2020 Osedax frankpressi Rouse, Goffredi & Vrijenhoek, 2004 Osedax jabba Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax japonicus Fujikura, Fujiwara & Kawato, 2006 Osedax knutei Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax lehmani Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax lonnyi Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax mucofloris Glover, Kallstrom, Smith & Dahlgren, 2005 Osedax nataliae Gularte, Sumida, Bergamo & Rouse, 2024 Osedax nordenskjoeldi Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014 Osedax priapus Rouse et al., 2014 Osedax packardorum Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax randyi Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax rogersi Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014 Osedax roseus Rouse, Worsaae, Johnson, Jones & Vrijenhoek, 2008 Osedax rubiplumus Rouse, Goffredi & Vrijenhoek, 2004 Osedax ryderi Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax sigridae Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax talkovici Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax tiburon Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax traceyae Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024 Osedax ventana Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek Osedax waadjum Georgieva, Wiklund, Ramos, Neal, Glasby & Gunton, 2023 Osedax westernflyer Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek
Vkusno i Tochka (Russian: Вкусно – и точка, IPA: [ˈfkusnə ɪ ˈtotɕkə], lit. 'Tasty, period') is a Russian fast food chain based mostly in former McDonald's restaurants, with a menu that largely consists of rebranded McDonald's items. McDonald's closed their Russian stores in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine; Vkusno i Tochka restaurants mostly occupy former McDonald's restaurants that were sold to business magnate and entrepreneur Alexander Govor, who was a company licensee in Siberia. The first restaurants in Russia were opened on 12 June 2022; since then, Vkusno i Tochka restaurants have also opened in Belarus and Kazakhstan, albeit under different names, also based mostly in former McDonald's restaurants in those two countries.
=== Cyclic peptide binders Screening === Cyclic peptides can be successfully displayed on bacterial cell surface. By DNA randomization millions of cyclic peptides displayed on cell surface can be screened against a protein target using high-throughput FACS.
Arenobufagin is believed to play a role in the regulation of the transport of water and electrolytes across cell membranes under physiological conditions. Experimental results show that Arenobufagin inhibits the sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase (Na+/K+-ATPase) . It is one of the most potent blockers that are known to science, along with ouabain. It has been suggested that uncharged and non-polar amino acids may participate in the binding of arenobufagin to the extracellular surface of the ATPase. If this is the case, the steroid nucleus of arenobufagin probably also contributes to the binding. Furthermore, the presence of a sugar group in ouabain and the absence of one in arenobufagin suggests that it may me more lipophilic that ouabain and as such form a more stable complex with the Na+-K+ pump. Besides its effects on the Na+-K+ pump, arenobufagin also has some other effects on cells, which were discovered in experiment with cancer cell lines. It causes apoptosis by tempering with mitochondria. In cells treated with it, a decreasing mitochondrial potential was detected (in a dose-dependent manner), as well as a high Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, which is associated with apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Bax translocation from cytosol to mitochondria was also found to be increased. In addition to these effects, arenobufagin also induces morphological changes in organelles, blebbing of plasma membrane, shrinkage of nuclear membrane and chromatin condensation. These observation also indicate the occurrence of apoptosis.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a 28-residue synthetic peptide studied as an immune-modulating agent and approved as a drug in some countries. The sequence matches a naturally occurring fragment isolated from thymus tissue. It is not a hormone in the endocrine sense.
The name traces back to thymosin fraction 5, a crude thymus extract examined in the 1970s. Individual peptides in that mixture were labeled with Greek letters, and alpha-1 was one of them. The international nonproprietary name thymalfasin was assigned later.
No. Thymosin beta-4 contains 43 residues and binds actin, while thymosin alpha-1 contains 28 residues and acts on immune cells. The two sit in a historical naming group but share no sequence similarity, and they are not substitutes for one another.
The name reflects an early convention for naming thymus-derived fractions. The peptide is characterized and measured as a defined molecule, and it does not operate through a single classical endocrine axis.